Academic Glossary (FAQs)
Content
Academic Writing Conventions
Active and Passive Voice
Having a Position/Stance/Standpoint/View
Narrative Voice (first-person and third-person)
Originality (What does it mean?)
Page Numbers in Referencing
Personal Opinions (Can I express them?)
Style and Voice
The Marker Knows Everything Already!
To Reference or Not to Reference?
If you are a student and have a question that is not answered here, please let us know. Likewise, if you are a member of staff and would like to add something to the glossary, please contact us.
Academic Writing Conventions
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Academic writing is bound by strong conventions, some of which are common across academic schools and subjects, while others are discipline-specific. Some may be more to do with departmental protocols and therefore need checking in specific settings. Many academic conventions also have a strong cultural component. International students should bear this in mind and check that their former experience aligns with expectations in the UK.
Having said this, even with formal academic writing there is room for individual style and some scope for compromise between academic protocols and personal preferences. In the early stages of your undergraduate studies though, and until you develop confidence in your academic writing, you should err on the side of formality.
[Back to top] Active and Passive Voice
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Whether a voice is active or passive depends upon the relationship between the subject, the agent and the action (verb). In an active sentence, the agent acts on the subject: e.g., "The man (subject) hit (action) his thumb with the hammer (agent)". In a passive sentence, the subject is acted on by the agent: e.g., "The hammer (agent) hit (action) the man's thumb (subject)".
The passive voice is used in academic writing to de-personalise the narrative: e.g., "Experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis".
Note that the identity of the experimenter (agent) has been omitted. This is because in an academic paper, it is assumed to be the author(s). If the experiments were conducted by someone other than the author, this would be referenced either by footnoting or citation.
The active voice is used more frequently in non-academic writing and in the spoken word: e.g., "I conducted experiments to test the hypothesis."
It is also appropriate to use the active voice more frequently in undergraduate level work:
- In order to make clear exactly who did what;
- Where the passive voice results in longer, less clear sentences.
For example:
1) Passive voice (unattributed): "Traces of ammonia were titrated from the samples." By whom? You? Someone else?
2) Passive voice (attributed): "Traces of ammonia were titrated from the samples by me."
3) Active voice: "I titrated traces of ammonia from the samples."
[Back to top] Having a Position/Stance/Standpoint/View
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A common question students ask is, do I have to take a stand? Or, should I develop a strong 'for and against' type argument in relation to the question?
Not necessarily, no. Some questions invite a stronger response than others, and some issues will inevitably provoke a stronger reaction in you. You may also feel that arguments on both sides of a debate have validity and strength.
You DO, however, need to demonstrate that you have considered the question from a broad perspective, and you DO need to present the different sides to the debate where these exist.
You should also 'position' yourself in relation to the different perspectives presented, i.e. it should be clear to your reader where you stand in relation to the question/debate, even if it is on the middle ground.
[Back to top] Narrative Voice (first-person and third-person)
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It used to be the case that academic writing was almost always in the 'third-person' (i.e. 'this essay will examine.' or 'one could argue that.'). However, in some departments it is now considered perfectly acceptable to use the 'first-person' ('I') if you prefer. It is best to check with members of staff to be sure. Whichever you choose, there are some points to bear in mind:
[Back to top] Originality (What does it mean?)
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An essay that competently reviews the well-known arguments in a subject and reaches a balanced conclusion will achieve a good (sometimes a very good) mark. A really excellent essay, however, typically demonstrates something extra. Sometimes you will hear this being referred to as demonstrating 'originality'.
It is not a requirement to be 'original'. But what do we really mean by this term anyway? It's unlikely, after all, in your undergraduate years at least, that you'll be coming up with ideas that could be considered truly original (in the sense that nobody thought of them before...).
Generally speaking, we use the word to refer to the sort of independent or 'abstract' thinking that comes about when, in the process of reflecting on a subject area or essay question that you've researched well and understood, you begin to generate other ideas (ideas that weren't necessarily a part of your reading but which were stimulated by it) and to make connections of your own. Such connections are not necessarily limited to the piece of work at hand and its source material; they may equally draw upon other areas of your learning and wider experience.
'Demonstrating originality', then, doesn't necessarily mean that you have to give startling new insights, and it certainly doesn't mean making unsupported grand claims or pontificating! It is still necessary to show the reader where your idea/s came from, i.e. the material generating them and thought processes from which they evolved.
[Back to top] Page Numbers in Referencing
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When citing, quoting or paraphrasing material (ideas, etc.) found in a specific location in a text, referencing should always include the relevant page number(s). However, if you are simply summarizing the general theme of a book, the author/year is sufficient.
[Back to top] Personal Opinions (Can I express them?)
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It's fine to put forward your own argument or point of view, providing...
- It's framed in academic language
- The thinking behind it is explicit and contextualised, i.e. it's clear to your reader how you reached this point (generally within the framework of evidence of your reading)
- You provide examples where appropriate and possible
- You are not offering it as a statement of fact - personal opinions expressed casually have no place in an academic essay
- You recognize the difference between an opinion that has been researched, that can be supported by evidence, and which relates to the issues at hand, and an everyday opinion that is driven by personal taste
Expressing opinions is not compulsory; much depends on the format of the question and subject matter. However, where it is relevant and well-argued, you are encouraged to express your own point of view. This could take the form of agreeing with an argument you have presented and which has been backed up with reputable academic sources; it might also take the form of bringing in an everyday example to illustrate a point.
Where there is a 'for and against' position to be taken, you should attempt to present both sides to the issue/debate. It's okay to come down heavily in favour of one argument, but such a strong position can only be defended following a sustained critique of the opposing view.
[Back to top] Style and Voice
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Academic writing (essays, reports, etc.) generally requires you to adopt a more formal tone than you would typically use in your everyday writing (notes, letters, emails, diaries, etc.).
Specific assignments may occasionally allow you to adopt an informal style of expression; for example, some module assignments might ask you very specifically about your own thoughts and feelings, inviting a more personal tone. Mostly though, you will need to step back a little from this degree of personal involvement in your text and assume a more objective 'voice'.
It can be difficult at first to find the right level at which to pitch your academic writing. Over time, however, with practice and feedback, you will gradually find you become more comfortable in your written expression.
Developing your 'voice' as an academic writer is an expression used to describe the cumulative process by which you come to develop:
- Confidence and ease in your writing
- A 'feel' for the appropriate balance between protocol and preference
- Clarity and fluidity in your style
- An increasing sense of your own 'position' in relation to your subject material
- A command of your material and the ability to use it effectively in balanced but persuasive argumentation.
[Back to top] The Marker Knows Everything Already!
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You may ask yourself, Why do I need to explain/expand on the question (key terms, etc.) when I know the person marking it knows it all already?
The purpose of your essay is to demonstrate that YOU understand your material and the specific question you're answering. So although it's important to keep your audience in mind, don't assume that you can omit aspects of your argument/explanation because your reader will already be familiar with it.
Likewise, in answering the question, you should avoid simply plunging straight into your response as if the question itself and its key terms were unproblematic. You should always explain key terms (unfamiliar terms, or terms that have a specific meaning within your discipline), and give any relevant background to the issue(s) to be discussed.
A useful tip is to write your essay as if it were intended for the benefit of an educated audience but one not necessarily well-informed on the specific subject. Include whatever information is necessary for such an audience to make sense of the question and your response to it.
[Back to top] To Reference or Not to Reference?
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Many students struggle with this issue. "If everything I know on a subject comes from other people - books, lectures, etc. - doesn't it mean I also have to reference everything?"
It is necessary and acceptable practice (though not always easy at first) to make a distinction between 'common knowledge' type information (i.e. well-established, generally accepted knowledge, shared across sources) which can be included in your writing without the need to seek a particular reference to support it, and the specific words, ideas, theories and arguments put forward by individual writers, which must always be referenced.
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