Essay and Writing Skills

• Introduction
• Stages in Essay Writing
• Bibliography and Referencing
• Common Writing Problems and Errors
• George Orwell’s Guidelines for Good Writing
• Grade Criteria

Introduction

Essays are the main way your work will be assessed during your degree. So it really is worth taking some time to improve your skills. There are many ways to write an essay, and conventions and expectations also vary across disciplines. So for example, at undergraduate level your own interpretation (of a text or work of art) may be more important in literature and art history than in sociology or government where careful comparison of the arguments and findings of different scholars may be more important. Therefore these notes are intended to provide general guidance rather than definitive rules. If you need further help, see your module tutors in office hours or read one of the books on this topic in the library. If one of your friends or classmates has received a good mark for their essay, ask them to if you can borrow and read it.

Why do we use essays for assessment?

There are several reasons why we use essays as a means of assessment. Essays show if students have understood material discussed in lectures and classes and whether they have done any reading. They also show whether students can write clearly and construct a coherent argument. But essays are not just a means of testing. In the process of writing essays, students develop their skills, deepen their knowledge, and clarify their ideas. Because of this, anyone determined to improve their essay-writing will be able to do so. Students often improve their grades by at least a class if they stand back and identify weaknesses in their approach, or take time to understand basic conventions.

What basic conventions do you need to understand?

Basic conventions include not only those relating structure and composition: e.g. ensuring that an essay has a clear introduction and conclusions; and that you develop an argument. They also include rules of grammar and punctuation. Words, sentences, paragraphs and punctuation are the basic tools of writing. Correct use is crucial to ensuring clarity of meaning. If you are unsure about basic rules, it will be difficult to develop your style and voice when you write.

Stages in Essay Writing

1. Choosing the Question
   The first stage in writing an essay is to choose a question. Obviously, choosing a question is usually shaped by interest in a topic. But it’s also important to consider whether you’re really interested in approaching the topic from the angle embedded in the question. In other words, will you be able to answer the question or just write a set of general points about the topic. If you’re unsure about the angle from the way the question is phrased, see your course tutor and ask her/him to clarify this before you make your final choice.
   
   
2. Reading and Taking Notes
   Before you begin looking for books and articles read through your lecture notes. Then start with the books and articles listed on your module outline. Your tutor has selected these for good reasons—because they are the most relevant books/articles on the topic. (It is surprising how often students ignore the books on the reading list and select a set of readings at random from the library).
   
   When you make notes, summarise the author’s argument and key points in your own words. But make sure you jot down some key quotes (concepts, phrases or sentences) from the text in inverted commas, with the page number. This will help you to avoid plagiarism, and save time later. When you read through your notes, you will know which phrases are yours and which are the author’s original words. Direct quotes can then be used in a creative way when you come to write the essay.
   
   
3. Making an Essay Plan
   Once you’ve taken notes on readings, it’s time to plan the essay. At this point it is important to think carefully about the question again. A good essay answers the question. It constructs an argument, and uses evidence to support the argument. So this is the stage to decide what you think and how you will present your argument. This is the most difficult stage of the whole process. But remember there is no right answer, but a range of possible answers to most essay questions.
   
   Before you make your plan read through your notes and highlight key points or quotes. Then sketch out the structure of the essay. The plan should include an introduction, four to ten main points, and a conclusion. (The number of points usually depends on the question). When you’ve made a first draft of the plan, re-read it and check whether the order of your ideas is logical. (So for example, if you’ve got a background section it should come near the beginning, not at the end). Then add sub-points under each of the main points. If you’ve found some good quotes it’s also worth adding them to your plan at this stage. Have you found a particularly inspiring quote that you could use to open the essay, for example?
   
   
4. Writing the Essay
   Once you’ve prepared the plan, you are ready to write the essay. If your plan is coherent, this should be quite straightforward. It’s usually best to make sure that you have a clear stretch of time, so you don’t lose your train of thought, or waste time trying to find it again.
   
   Starting writing can be difficult. But once you’ve written the introduction you often gain momentum and it gets easier. Generally, a good introduction will briefly introduce the topic, and outline how you are going to address the question. This may involve describing the structure of the essay. An introduction may be one or two paragraphs long, but it shouldn’t be more than a page.
   
   Once you’ve written the introduction, go through each point of your plan in turn. Think carefully about your paragraphs: they are the key building blocks of an essay. Usually a paragraph will start with a general point and then illustrate this or provide more detail. In a good essay you can often see the structure of an argument by reading the first line of each paragraph.
   
   Make sure that you finish your essay with a conclusion of one or two paragraphs. The conclusions should summarise your argument, and may end with another quote, or a flourish. Read through the essay before you write the conclusions, and check it matches the introduction and content of the essay.
   
   
5. Proof-Reading and Correcting Your Essay
   You should always proof-read and correct your essay before handing it in.  Proof-reading can improve your mark by a class. 
   • First run a spell check on your draft essay. 
   • Then print your draft and read the printed version. (It’s very easy to miss problems on screen and spell-checks don’t always pick up spelling mistakes).
   • Reading aloud is often the best way to identify writing errors and problems.
   • Underline errors as you read, and then make changes and corrections before you print the final version and hand in the essay.
   • Common problems include:
     • Typing and grammatical mistakes
     • Unclear, incomplete, or rambling sentences; 
     • Paragraphs that are incorrectly spaced, and too long or too short;
     • Misuse of punctuation and words (if you are unsure about the rules of punctuation, consult a manual; if you are not sure about the meaning of a word either check it in a dictionary or don’t use it).
     • Too many words (leading to unclear meaning)
     • Inadequate references
     • Incomplete bibliography, or texts not cited in alphabetical order
   
   
6. Reading through Tutor’s Comments
   Receiving comments can be hard, especially if you’ve received a disappointing mark.  But it is important that you understand why you’ve obtained a certain mark and to learn from mistakes or weaknesses. Some tutors also give guidance on writing (as well as content) which you can use to improve future essays.  If you don’t understand the comments, see your tutor in office hours. 

Bibliography and Referencing

There are many different systems for referencing, and it is up to you which one you choose.  The Cambridge system (or a standard variation of it) is more common in the Humanities.  It uses footnotes only.  The Harvard system (and variations of it) is more usual in the social sciences.  It uses the author’s surname, the date of the text and page numbers in brackets in the text and a bibliography at the end.  Whichever system you choose, make sure that you are consistent, and don’t muddle two systems in the same essay.  If you’re unsure about referencing follow the example of one of your key course texts.  And make sure that only include texts that you have actually mentioned in the essay in the bibliography.  Here is one style for a bibliography:

Allen, C. (1982) ‘Body and Soul in Quechua Thought’ Journal of Latin American
Studies, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.179-196
Allen, C. (1988) The Hold Life Has: Coca and Cultural Identity in an Andean
 Community Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press
(Note the use of italics for the book title and journal title).

Referencing

Referencing is a very important part of essay writing.  It is essential to reference the texts you use in constructing an essay.  It is a serious academic offence to present someone else’s ideas or words as if they were your own: if you do so you may be guilty of plagiarism.  In practice referencing is not difficult.  Here are some ways.

• If you are referring to an author’s general argument, then use phrases like, As Allen (1982) argues in Quechua thought body and soul are ….
• If you are referring to a specific point an author makes in a book or article then use the page number, e.g. As Allen (1982: 195) shows
• If an author makes a point in a very succinct and telling way, then quote directly and use inverted commas, e.g.: As Allen (1982: 186) puts it: ‘……………’

Common Writing Problems and Errors

1. Paragraphs
   Paragraphs are the key blocks of any piece of writing.  A paragraph introduces an idea, and then unpacks, develops or exemplifies that idea.  There are two ways to separate paragraphs: either leave a line space or indent the beginning of the new paragraph. 

   The most common problems are paragraphs that are either too long, or too short. Both indicate that you have not organised your ideas carefully.  Paragraphs of one or two sentences often read like a list and suggest fragmented thinking. Very long paragraphs (more than a page, for example) suggest that you’ve been unable to identify important points.  Either way it will be difficult for the reader to follow the line of your argument.      
   
   
2. Incomplete or Rambling Sentences
   All sentences have to have a subject and a verb, compare for example:
                  The house by the sea. (incomplete sentence)
                  The house is by the sea. (complete sentence)Meaning often gets lost or confused in very long sentences.  So as a general rule, make sure that your sentences are not more than two lines long.  It’s also good practice to vary the length and structure of your sentences.
   
   
3. Confusion between the plural (s) and the apostrophe (’s/ s’)
   The apostrophe (’s /s’) is used to indicate possession; it is frequently confused with the simple plural s.                  If the cat has one mat: the cat’s mat
                   If the cat has several mats: the cat’s mats

   If the subject is plural then the apostrophe is used after the plural s:
                  If the cats have one mat: the cats’ mat
                  If the cats have several mats: the cats’ mats

   Don’t use the apostrophe for simple plurals, e.g.: NGOs (not NGO’s); the decade of the 1980s (not 1980’s); during the 1990s (not 1990’s).

4. Confusion between it’s and its
   The rule here is that it’s (with apostrophe) is used for the contraction of it is; and its (without the apostrophe) is used for the possessive: 
                  it is the cat’s mat becomes it’s the cat’s mat;
                  and the cat’s mat becomes its mat

George Orwell’s Guidelines for Good Writing

1. ‘Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.
2. Never use a long word where a short one will do.
3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
4. Never use the passive where you can use the active.
5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.’

(George Orwell (1984[194 )‘Politics and the English Language’ in The Penguin Essays of George Orwell Harmondsworth: Penguin, p.365)

Most departments expect students to submit assignments onto Online Coursework Submission (OCS). Further information about OCS is available on myessex.

GRADE CRITERIA

Further information is also available on the Academic Section website.