HEAD ORIENTATION AS A SIGN OF MORAL INTENT IN GUAMAN POMA DE AYALA'S NUEVA CORONICA Y BUEN GOBIERNO

by Charles Swainston

Archaeologist and art historian. MA Native American Studies, University of Essex, presently a 4th yr. PhD student in the Department of Art History & Theory at the same university. Currently co-director of an Archaeological dig in Arizona.

Profile and full-face may be regarded as frameworks within which an artist can reinforce a particular quality of the figure through associated features while exploiting an effect latent in that view.1

Guaman Poma de Ayala utilises to full dramatic effect the tension inherent within head orientation as suggested by Schapiro above. Constant reference is made by Poma to the opposition, contrast and conformity of head orientation as a means by which a sense of morality is put forward. This is not however evident within all images of the Nueva Coronica. Rather a purposeful selection based upon narrative content is the discerning principle. Images such as the introductory pages are exempt from this grouping because their content has a different function. It does not involve a critique of colonial rule and therefore impart a moral. The portrayal of the Coronation of the Virgin (page 2) for example relies upon variation of head postures to express the multi-directional, all embracing love of God and affirmation of the action, a European convention expressed in the Coronation of the Virgin. It does not, as will be shown in this paper using other examples, denote a moral signifier. Consequently the examples chosen will concern how, through the use of specific head orientation, a moral is imparted. Essentially this is achieved through two methods; confrontation by a figure of the viewer; confrontation of one figure to another. Both methods, however, make use of the inherent tension brought about by Poma's inclusion of two conflicting pictorial conventions, European and Andean, whereby Poma deconstructs a conventional symbol subverting its latent content. Consequently one convention is manipulated to reinforce another.

What will become evident is that no specific formula will arise concerning precise head orientation. The profile will not always imply consent. However, what is fundamental to all the images discussed is the role that head orientation plays not only in the progression of the narrative but also as a vehicle imbued with a moral dialectic.

The axis of the drama on page 524 revolves around the central figure. It is he who is the focus of the abusing majordomo's baton and is therefore the locus of the viewer's attention. This is evident through simple pictorial devices (the direction of the movement and, on one level, the orientation of the heads with two peripheral profiles directed toward the central figure). If the head of the central figure, the servant, was facing in profile towards the aggressor the image would be concerned merely with the portrayal of an injustice, the undeserved and excessive punishment exacted by the Spaniard. The servant, however, is not in profile and therefore conflicts with the head orientation of the other characters within the frame imbuing the drama with an inherent tension. More so, the servant is overtly contorted. On the one hand he attempts to face his aggressor as an instinctual reaction but on the other he attempts to confront the spectator. This evident duality in purpose and resultant dislocation of the central figure is not due to inadequate drawing skills, nor does it confuse either the narrative or the message. Rather what is given is a complex presentation of the morality and responsibility of colonial rule and the questioning of colonial authority.

Adorno2 interprets this composition as nullifying colonial rule in so far as it relies upon the Andean model of the 'secondary diagonal'. That is to say, she states that the majordomo is placed in the conventional position of Andean authority. Consequently, the Spaniard's authority is negated. Furthermore, Adorno3 states that he faces right which is conceived by her to repudiate his rule.4 Interestingly she does not identify the importance of the central placement of the Andean servant which, according to her paradigms, would place his authority above that of the Spaniard's in the position primarily reserved for the Holy Trinity and the Pope.5 Her argument is strengthened if one recognises the juxtaposition of a conventionalised European position of authority (the majordomo sitting high upon a horse, his costume and the evident master/servant context) with that of the Andean (the characteristics stated by Adorno). Such an argument seems more logical in de-legitimising Spanish authority the axis of which hinges upon the head orientation of the victimised servant as a means to this dramatic tension.

The servant attempts to engage the spectator directly through his confrontational stance. The spectator is thus active within the scene's moral dialectic. That is we, as the spectator, are required to judge the morality of the image rather than merely observe and be passive to the message.6 If the servant were in profile, in concordance with the other two, facing his aggressor the message is merely a statement concerning injustice received by the Andeans. As such the spectator is not directly involved with the concerns of the image, the message is merely read. However because we are engaged, that is brought into the frame by the frontal head orientation, we become integral with its outcome. On a simple level this makes for an interesting image. On a political level it reserves the integrity of the author by his detachment from the picture's conclusion. It is this aspect which is fundamental to the image's interpretation.

The original intention and the main concern for Poma was that the Nueva Coronica should be read as an informative and instructional manuscript for the governing of the New World by King Philip III. The manuscript in this way was conceived as an open letter. With such an inherent political objective the Coronica has to be, by definition, impartial to subjective and emotional criticism of the Colonialists. To have such a content would undermine the objectives and be seen as the ramblings of a malcontent. Because of this any criticism has to be masked in an informative and disconnected manner based upon intellectual, as opposed to emotional, concerns. To overtly condemn a majordomo's action on an emotional level would weaken Poma's position. By placing the moral onus on the spectator, however, relieves Poma of this burden without relieving the manuscript of its content.

As a consequence of Poma's aim to both involve and disengage the servant from the drama the figure has become contorted. The over emphasised neck, the awkward head position and the side-wards glance emphasises the servant's discomfort whilst also allowing the continuation of the narrative injecting dramatic tension. His head for the sake of the narrative is made to appear directed towards the viewer's left, i.e. facing his aggressor as one would expect but it is only partially directed toward the aggressor. Such an unnatural stance and dislocation of the central character is emblematic of his social and cultural disfigurement. This disfigurement is intended as a device employed to enforce the moral discourse. There are numerous scenes in which central characters are completely dislocated to aid narrative, for example page 675: this emphasises the servant's head orientation as a concerted effort by Poma to convey a dual purpose (moral and narrative).

On page 606 an Andean figure is again dislocated. In contrast to the above example, the character is made to face the inquisitor directly. Consequently there is a another role for the dislocation of a figure. This emphasises the contortion of page 524 and the point concerning specific head orientation. If, on page 524, the servant was portrayed in profile for the sake of the narrative the latent meaning concerning the confrontation and engagement of the viewer would evaporate. Rather Poma has chosen a system whereby independent meaning evolves through the relation of its constituent parts.

On page 606 again the contortion of the Andean's body could have been more averted. This, however, would detract from the meaning of the drama, that is, the need for confrontation. The contorted body emphasises confrontation, though this time not with the spectator, but rather with the Spaniard. This form of dramatic tension hinges on the fact that the head and body are dislocated as does with page 524. The clash of profiles enlivens the image enforcing a moral. Whereas the perception and legitimacy of a punishment can differ, especially between master and servant, the significance of Catholic priests fathering illegitimate children is inherently wrong. Therefore, Poma's condemnation of such behaviour is legitimate and thus the primary moral can be portrayed overtly in contrast to the moral on page 524. The consequence of this in pictorial terms is that the spectator can be passive in this drama. The narrative unfolds within the frame.

The Andean's aggressive facial expression, the down turned mouth, the focused eyebrows shows a man who is resolute in his aims. The profile helps cement this point as he remains integral to the narrative (by making him face us he becomes detached from the drama). Furthermore, he directly confronts the Spaniard in a like manner, that is profile, but opposed in direction, that is to look at the Spaniard. By so doing Poma upsets the natural master/servant balance and relies on this tension to incite the moral. The scene is given additional severity by the pace implied in the action. All characters are moving; the Spaniard's horse is galloping; the Andean's horse is moving quite rapidly; the Andean himself does not even stop to reply to the Spaniard's questioning, but keeps on moving only turning his head to respond.

A second tension in page 606 is the product of multiple head orientation. The hapless victims of the situation, the children in the saddle-bags, are shown to be confused and distressed by the situation. They have presumably been taken from their mother, their father is absent (on a domestic level although they could resident in the town) and they are presently being taken in a basket (ordinarily reserved for burdens) on the back of a horse, naturally they are distressed. The method employed by Poma to depict this is through varying and conflicting head postures emblematic of the discord suffered by the children. What makes this powerful in a dramatic sense is the confining space in which they are placed contrasted with the vacuous space above them. The concentrated mass of defining lines consolidates their predicament and confused sense of purpose whereas the adult characters with their precise location, on the periphery, and clarity of line is emblematic of their polemic views and strong sense of purpose.

Page 585 renders this message in the same manner. As with the previous example the moral again deals with the priesthood and its evident failings and hypocrisies. Here are presented the two protagonists in a confrontational contorted profile stance. The congregation, as before, is symptomatic of confusion. However whereas the group of children identified religion and hypocrisy in a metaphorical sense where religion punished indirectly (the innocent) here on page 585 the group highlight the actual problems concerning direct punishment faced by Andeans made all the more real by the top scene.7

The naked Andean child confronts his aggressor.8 The profile head in direct and close proximity to the priest's emphasises the confrontational aspect of this drama. His crime, one can deduce from the scene below, is his failure to perform the correct deference to God. His punishment is direct, a harsh and brutal beating. The effort and hostility felt on both sides is then exaggerated and made more real by their open mouths. Furthermore the child's evident dislocation of body and head can be read not only as an attempt to make the scene truly abhorrent but also as a symbol of the dislocation of the Andean populace whereby their tied hands make them unable to defend themselves against the Spanish regime. Simultaneously their ignorance, as implied in the portrayal of the congregation of their exact actions and meaning in their service to God, make them defenceless against priestly discipline.

Contrary to what has been suggested, not all punishment is viewed by Poma as unjust or excessive. This, however, is only reserved for the Andean model. In one particular example, page 306, the punishment may seem harsh to European sensibilities but it was thought just in pre-colonial times. Indeed it goes some way to explain Poma's severity when dealing with Spanish sexual impropriety highlighting the Andean intolerance of sexual crimes.

In this image one finds the traditional rendering of the narrative. The accused couple show their distress through their facial expressions, their nudity and their posture, i.e. facing away from the executioners. The contortion of the male adulterer and the prominence of details like his oesophagus brutalises the scene but not in a way that condemns the judicial procedure nor the punishment exacted. Rather it is the crime that is under scrutiny. The executioners themselves show their single determination and compliance though conformity of stance, both figures are in profile (each with a raised hand and left leg forward). Furthermore, the procedures for analysing the content of this image are different because it lacks the inherent tension that springs from the integration of two cultures into a single pictorial space.

From these examples it is evident that within the manuscript there are different modes of interpreting a specific head orientation. One can not as a consequence formulate a method by which one particular head orientation can be read, but each head orientation confirms a definition set by its constituent components within the frame. That is, all profile heads, for example, do not necessarily imply consent. The comparison of pages 375 and 451 is evidence of this.

Despite the apparent symmetry of page 375 there is a discernible unbalance. The banner is perhaps one example, but it also occurs in subtle head orientation. The Andeans, all in profile, look intently at the conquistadors. The Spanish however do not have such coherence. Although the bearded figure right most on the frontal plane is looking at the two ambassadors, he is not portrayed in profile. Further discontinuity is added by the placement of a confrontational figure next to him emphasising a left to right movement within the picture frame and therefore an inherent power struggle.

The composition itself suggests the 'Kiss of Judas' and therefore relies upon European convention. Adorno also identifies Andean paradigms which adhere to positions of authority and directionality (that is the power shift from left to right) which negates Spanish authority. The merging of these two conventions enables both sides of the political spectrum to identify the inherent tensions of the drama and while the composition may be read plainly (the meeting of two officials) the underlying tension is brought to the fore by the two protagonists. This is suggested by the contrasting profiles of the two who, in close proximity, confront each other, but it is through their intense frontal stares that the collective intentions are elucidated.

The Andean character who is outermost in the scene, disengaged from the pictorial narrative, confronts the viewer and attracts our attention. It is he who confirms the tension imbued within the scene. His trepidation of the meeting is supported by his counterpart who stares out at the viewer, much as the Andean does. Again his purpose is to draw our attention to the inherent conflict within the scene. The two opposing profiles of the ambassadors, the dissecting lines of the lances directed toward the Inca and the dominant position of the banner all assert that the narrative is not harmonious. The two engaging figures confirm this but only in as much as they contrast against the head orientation of their respective group. It is this that lends their orientation heightened dramatic tension and power. Without the internal tension set up by the two frontal facing figures and the mass profiles, the drama loses strength. The group profile would imply consent if it were not for the inclusion of the two frontal facing characters. However now they can be interpreted to be fearful and united in their trepidation. These two figures can be seen as orators commentating on the drama. In Greek art person and personification were represented as profile and frontal respectively.9 With such an interpretation one can see a similarity with this particular image whereby the full-face figures represents the concerns of the respective group.

On page 451, Poma reaffirms and redefines how the collective concerns are represented to that of the above. The witnesses to the public execution of an Inca collectively show their dissent through the similarity of stance, i.e. profile. The fact that they do not face the same direction is inconsequential. It does not imply a conflict in views as seen before. What it alludes to is the central figure praying to God who, as Adorno defines it, is in the position of legitimate authority, that is centre frame. The clue for this lies in the placement of the crucifix in the Inca's hands.

The central figure in the crowd embodies the collective opinion through his central positioning and that those on either side face him. With such a compressed pictorial space such techniques are necessary in order that a succinct and clear message is sent out. Therefore, because this figure looks at the crucifix one can interpret his actions, and the actions of the group, as a call to God not as a call to the conquistadors in the hope of preventing this public 'sacrifice'.

Contrary to the interpretation of the Andeans' profiles, the profiles of the Spaniards read as collective action only in so far as they have a single purpose, the decapitation of the Inca. Its function is twofold; it is narrative; it contrasts the right peripheral figure's head orientation. The precise interpretation of this figure is somewhat ambivalent. Does he oppose the action? Does he agree with it? One could argue for either side. The lightness of touch on the Inca's head and the observance of the hammer stroke contradict each other. This in itself lends form to the disunity implied by the contrast of profile and frontal heads of the Spanish. Compare this to the unity of the Andean group all in profile and a tension is self-evident. The frontal head in this instance, therefore, is employed to incite dissension within the Spanish ranks.10

Furthermore, as with other examples of frontal positioning, it disengages the figure from the drama and so upsets the balance further. It also aids in drawing the spectator into the frame. By so doing the spectator, as in page 524, is again called upon to make a moral judgement concerning the actions leaving the image free of them. Poma, therefore, indirectly questions the authority of colonial rule and lack of responsibility with which it is implemented.

An interesting and obvious parallel to this scene is page 390. Again a similar format is used to question the legitimacy of colonial rule. Here, however, the drama unfolds in a private scene. There are no witnesses to the act further undermining the legitimacy. The excessive force used to tie the victim down and to physically hold him conflicts with the evident passive submission by the Inca. He offers his neck to the blade and by so doing eradicates the officers' authority. The Inca's faith in Christianity amplifies the injustice. He is not just some barbarian. Again the central placement of the crucifix is fundamental to our understanding of the drama.

Conflict also arises in the contrast of head orientation. All the soldiers are presented in profile, whereas the Inca is shown in a three-quarters view. Firstly, this is a narrative device to mark his passivity and oppose the soldier's force by exposing the neck. It also contrasts the pure profiles of the soldiers and so sets him apart and imbue a natural tension. However, it can also be regarded as a device to imply direction. This has important connotations because Adorno feels this 'conceptual left' head orientation signifies a de-legitimisation of the colonialists authority.11 Consequently on three accounts the Inca's head orientation acts as the moral axis of the drama.

An undercurrent to this event is the subtle composition of the figures. The right peripheral figure in profile seems misplaced and cumbersome. In actuality he is precisely placed not just to aid the narrative, holding the Inca's head, but pivotal in asserting the latent theme. The spliced figure works as a geographical marker. The four guards stand at opposing and cardinal points within the frame. The Inca lies central to the drama and can, therefore, be likened to the map of Cusco imbuing the Inca with legitimate power over his oppressors. The use of this quincunx image legitimises Andean authority through its presence but remains esoteric in its identification. The composition also implies the cross and crucifixion and thus Christianity ( the spliced figure being marginal), and again the emblem is esoteric. Consequently each political group can recognise their specific compositional code whilst remaining ignorant of, or taking preference over, the other. This dual composition is again an example of the assimilation and then deconstruction of an European convention attempting to legitimise the Andean character and invoke a sense of morality on the drama, detrimental to colonial rule, from both political perspectives whilst the protagonists remain passive in moral didactic.

Alternatively, Adorno identifies the crucifix as the mediator between the Old and New World. The mere representation of such an emblem could conform to this concept (pages 451, 17, 557, 886 etc.) and indeed pathos can be directed to a victimised Andean because of this very emblem. However, religious iconography also has another function, one of manifesting the inherent polemic ideology of the two continents as seen in this page. Page 675 is another example.

Contrasting the intricacies of the composition on page 390 is page 527. Here the injustice is overt. Therefore, there is no need to be confronted by an individual to engage our sense of morality. The strength of dramatic tension produced in this frame is the consequence of dualism, a conflict between opposing forces stopped dead at a particular moment epitomised in the clash of profiles.12 This static frame dislocates the image temporarily and in so doing denies room for commentary. The action is self-evident. The atrocity is heightened by the religious connotations within the drama. The servant's position is one of prayer, the 'laying on of hands' also gives the allusion to religious devotion yet this is a violent and 'undefendable' act. Because of this there is no need to engage the spectator. Here profiles are adequately employed to convey the narrative and the sense of dramatic tension. Indeed a disruption in the drama would dilute the narrative content rendering it impotent.

In summary, therefore, Guaman Poma utilises the latent effect of head orientation. Through the contrast of head positioning the Andeans's fate is brought to the fore through the explicit use of head orientation in such a manner as to incite moral dialectic within the frame. This can take the form of direct and explicit denunciation as in the example of page 606 whereby the moral is self-evident. Alternatively the moral identifier is implicit and is brought about through the confrontation of the transgressor. This second method can work on two levels. Considering that the manuscript was conceived as an open letter for King Philip, whether the focus of confrontation is between characters within the frame or between a figure and the spectator, both situations confront the transgressor. However, they differ in method. The latter implies a moral dialectic in which the spectator participates in the other the spectator is a witness to.

Furthermore, with this pictorial device Poma attempts to atomise the conventionalised presentation of recognised European codified icons and deconstructs them subverting their latent content. Consequently one convention is manipulated to reinforce another. In each of the examples a conventional European placement of power, secular or religious, is subverted by the conflicting position of the Andean model. Either the Andean is portrayed as a victim who is weak and unjustly treated or he is rendered powerful and suppressed.

Notes

1 Schapiro 198?:45

2 Adorno 1981:89

3 Adorno 1981:85

4 One has to be wary of Adorno's principle of power shifts and dominant directionality. There does seem to be too many 'anomalies' to confirm Adorno's principle. On this, and some other examples chosen, the power shifts do conform to Adorno's principle. However, out of all the examples chosen and viewed in depth here, 5 of them adhere to this rule (pp606,585, 375, 390,527). 2 do not (pp424,451) (3 including the front facing figure on p375). 1 example is not counted because its content is different (p306). From these statistics it is evident that Adorno's principle is not accurate and would confirm the statement that head orientation needs to be viewed in relation to its respective frame, not formulated from the "compositions of all the drawings". (Adorno 1981:78)

5 Adorno 1981:94

6 An interesting comparison is with the frontal heads found in European manuscripts. Here they have a narrative role where dialogue and action is indicated by them. It is rare to find confrontational heads and gestures employed to engage the viewer directly in moral speculation. Invariably morality is discussed within the framework of the image and does not extend beyond those bounds. The images themselves have a more didactic role. In the print of the Humilitas Triumphant and Virtuous Women Humilitas does confront the spectator but only as affirmation of her success. She does not invite the spectator to help interpret the scene, that is evident enough.

7 As an individual the naked Andean child is also a metaphor for the young victimised Andean populace. It is he who is in direct confrontation with the Spanish perpetrator symbolised in the wrath of the priest but is unable to defend himself because of the necessity to cling to his father and his subsequent dependence. (This is a direct contrast to the broken father/son bonds and lack of responsibility of the Spanish to their children on page 606). The adult Andean population is symbolised in the father. It is they who have the burden of bringing up their young under Spanish rule (the child being supported by the father and its evident weight both moral and physical) but they have the protection of their indigenous past. The youth, however, do not have such a shield and are therefore at the forefront of the immediate effects of colonial rule.

8 Katzenellenbugen (1939 p1) in examining the history of the print states that concepts of emotion were humanised lending the vices human characteristics lessening the fear of them and enabling man to overcome them. He gives the example of Prudentius's Psychomachia (early Fifth Century). Poma on page 585 seems to reverse this idea demonising Spanish rule and creating an inescapable evil.

9 Schapiro 19?:40

10 In support of this Philip II was angry with Toledo for executing some many Andeans. Many Churchmen too felt it was a bad move. (Fraser, V: Personal communication)

11 Adorno 1981:89

12 Katzenellenbugen 1936:26

References

Adorno, R.,1981, 'Paradigms Lost', Studies In the Anthropology of Visual Communication

Katzenellenbugen, A., 1939, Allegories of the virtues and the vices in Medieval Art, Norton & Company

Merlot, M., Griffiths, A. & Field, R., 1981, Prints, MacMillan

Poma, G., 1980, Nueva Cornica Y Buen Gobeirno, eds. Murra J.V. & Adorno R., Siglo Veintuno

Schapiro, M., 'Frontal & Profile as Symbolic Forms', Words & Pictures 4

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